Sampling risk is the risk that the auditor's conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion that would be reached if the entire population was tested using the same audit procedure. Sampling risk can lead to either incorrect rejection or incorrect acceptance of the audit objective. The best way to minimize sampling risk is to perform statistical sampling. Statistical sampling is a method of selecting and evaluating a sample using probability theory and mathematical calculations. Statistical sampling allows auditors to measure and control the sampling risk by determining the appropriate sample size and selection method, and evaluating the results using confidence levels and precision intervals. Statistical sampling can also provide more objective and consistent results than judgmental sampling, which relies on the auditor's professional judgment and experience.
References:
* 6: Sampling Risks: Definition, Example, and Explanation - Wikiaccounting
* 7: Sampling Risk in Audit | Sampling vs non sampling risk - Accountinguide
* 9: Audit sampling | ACCA Qualification | Students | ACCA Global

Multi-tenancy within the same database (B) presents the greatest risk of data leakage in the cloud environment, because it means that multiple customers share the same physical database and resources. This can lead to data isolation and security issues, such as unauthorized access, cross-tenant attacks, or data leakage due to misconfiguration or human error. To prevent data leakage in a multi-tenant database, cloud providers need to implement strict access control policies, encryption, isolation mechanisms, and auditing tools.
Lack of data retention policy (A) is not the greatest risk of data leakage in the cloud environment, because it mainly affects the availability and compliance of data, not its confidentiality or integrity. Data retention policy defines how long data should be stored and when it should be deleted or archived. Without a data retention policy, cloud customers may face legal or regulatory issues, storage costs, or performance degradation.
Lack of role-based access © is not the greatest risk of data leakage in the cloud environment, because it can be mitigated by implementing proper authentication and authorization mechanisms. Role-based access control (RBAC) is a security model that assigns permissions and privileges to users based on their roles and responsibilities. Without RBAC, cloud customers may face unauthorized access, privilege escalation, or data misuse.
Expiration of security certificate (D) is not the greatest risk of data leakage in the cloud environment, because it can be easily detected and renewed. A security certificate is a digital document that verifies the identity and authenticity of a website or service. It also enables secure communication using encryption. If a security certificate expires, it may cause trust issues, warning messages, or connection errors, but not necessarily data leakage.
References:
7 Ways to Prevent Data Leaks in the Cloud | OTAVA®
An analysis of data leakage and prevention techniques in cloud environment

The greatest concern when reviewing an IT strategic plan is B. The plan does not support relevant organizational goals. This is because an IT strategic plan should align and integrate the IT goals and objectives with the organization's overall strategy and vision, and ensure that IT supports and enables the business processes and functions1. If the IT strategic plan does not support relevant organizational goals, it may lead to:
Suboptimal or negative outcomes and value for the organization, as IT investments and initiatives may not align with the organization's priorities, needs, or expectations1.
Conflicts or inconsistencies between IT and business functions, as IT may not deliver the expected level of service, quality, or performance2.
Wasted or inefficient use of resources, as IT may spend time, money, or effort on projects or activities that are not relevant or beneficial for the organization2.

The IS auditor's best recommendation is to ensure that programmers cannot access code after the completion of program edits. This is because programmers who have access to code after editing may introduce unauthorized or malicious changes that could compromise the security, functionality, or performance of the application. By restricting access to code after editing, the organization can ensure that only authorized and tested code is released into production, and prevent any tampering or reoccurrence of the same issue.
References:
* 1 discusses the importance of controlling access to code after editing and testing, and provides some best practices for doing so.
* 2 explains how programmers can introduce malicious code into applications, and how to prevent and detect such attacks.
* 3 describes the role of IS auditors in reviewing and assessing the security and quality of application code.

This means that the IT investments are aligned with the strategic goals and priorities of the organization, and that they deliver value and benefits to the business. Mapping IT investments to specific business objectives can help ensure that the IT investments are relevant, justified, and measurable, and that they support the organization's mission and vision.
IT investments are implemented and monitored following a system development life cycle (SDLC) is an indication of effective IT project management, but not necessarily of effective IT investment management.
The SDLC is a framework that guides the development and implementation of IT systems and applications, but it does not address the alignment, justification, or measurement of the IT investments.
Key performance indicators (KPIs) are defined for each business requiring IT investment is an indication of effective IT performance management, but not necessarily of effective IT investment management. KPIs are metrics that measure the outcomes and results of IT activities and processes, but they do not address the alignment, justification, or value of the IT investments.
The IT investment budget is significantly below industry benchmarks is not an indication of effective IT investment management, but rather of low IT spending. The IT investment budget should be based on the organization's needs and capabilities, and not on external comparisons. A low IT investment budget may indicate that the organization is underinvesting in IT, which could limit its potential for growth and innovation.